Image Restored through Christ: The Image of God in Pauline Epistles
Image of God: the Known and the Unknown
The Jewish and Christian notion that humankind is created in the image and likeness of God is rooted in three passages of Genesis. In Gen 1:26–27 God said, “Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth” and then God created humankind, both male and female, in his image.[1] Gen 5:1 reiterates that humankind was made in the likeness of God, and then Gen 9:6 states it is because God made human in his own image that a human shall not shed the blood of another human.
As a theological concept, the image and likeness of God has evoked numerous discussions since the Christian church was formed. The early church fathers opined that image and likeness are two distinct attributes or parts of humanity.[2] The distinction between image and likeness may be that of bodily nature and spiritual nature, that of mental and moral perfection on the one hand and divine perfection on the other, or that of natural gifts and supernatural grace.[3]
This line of thinking, though influential for a long time, speaks much more than what the scripture texts imply. As far as the passages quoted here are concerned, the “likeness of God” in Gen 5:1 and the “image of God” in Gen 9:6 are likely to be short forms of, and equivalent to, the image and the likeness of God in Gen 1:26–27. Therefore, it is more appropriate to treat “image” and “likeness” as synonyms in these passages, and not as two distinctive attributes or parts.[4]
What we can learn from these passages about the “image of God” are probably: (1) from Gen 1:26–27 and 5:1–2 we know that both men and women are created in the image of God and this sets humanity apart from other creatures; (2) from Gen 1:31 we know that humanity, created in the image of God, is considered by God as “very good”;(3) the close association between God’s intention to create humanity in his own image and his intention to let them have dominion over other creatures in Gen 1:26 reveals that God’s image in humanity probably has to do with humankind’s relationship to the created world; (4) the statements in 9:6 show that even after the fall, as well as after the flood, humankind still retained God’s image. Apart from these points, the passages in Genesis do not supply clues as to whether the image of God is related to physical features, mental faculties, or the spiritual dimension of a human being. These passages also do not provide information for the impact of the fall upon God’s image in humanity.
Although the brevity of these Genesis texts does not allow readers to infer much regarding the meaning of the image of God, studies on the use of “image” in ancient Egypt may shed some light on what the image of God in Genesis may mean by comparison. In ancient Egypt, the pharaoh was frequently described as the image of a particular god, and that was because he was believed to be the earthly manifestation of the deity and thus functioned on the earth exactly as the image in the temple.[5] If the image of God in Genesis can be understood in a similar way, it is likely that humankind created in the image of God indicates that humankind has been bestowed the function as God’s earthly agent to have dominion over the rest of God’s creation
Image of God in Pauline Epistles
Outside the book of Genesis the “image of God” motif is seldom developed in the OT, whereas in the NT, especially in the Pauline Epistles, this motif is taken up and developed further in a new religious context.
In 1 Cor 11:7 Paul uses the “image of God” motif to deal with the issue of head covering for men and women. Unlike the description in Gen 1:26–27 and 5:1–2 that both male and female are created in the image of God, Paul sees man alone being the image of God here. It seems that to him woman reflects the image of God somewhat indirectly since he sees woman as the reflection (or glory) of man. It is possible that here Paul combines the creation account of Gen 1:26–27 with that of Gen 2:4b–25, in which Adam was made by the dust of the ground first and later Eve was made by one of Adam’s ribs.[6] If this is the case, the language of 1Cor 11:7, though slightly different, can still be seen as a proper reflection of the “image of God” motif in Gen 1:26–27. In addition, to use this motif to deal with his contemporary issue, Paul affirms implicitly the OT notion that fallen humanity still bears God’s image.
As we have seen, the “image-of-God” passages in Genesis do not deal explicitly with the impact of the fall on God’s image in humanity, whereas it is possible that in Rom 1:23 and its context (Rom 1:18–23) Paul presents his understanding of the impact of the fall upon God’s image in humanity. Rom 1:23 says, “…and they exchanged the glory of the immortal God for images resembling a mortal human being or birds or four-footed animals or reptiles.” As commentators have observed, this verse echoes Psa 106:20, “They exchanged the glory of God for the image of an ox that eats grass,” and Psa 106:20 alludes to the worship of the golden calf
in Sinai in Exo 32:1–34.[7] In addition, it is also possible that here we have an allusion to Gen 1:26–27 with the use of words such as “images,” or “resembling” (whose Greek shares the same root with the Greek term for “likeness”), “human being or bird or four-footed animals or reptiles;” these are terms similar to the vocabulary used in Gen 1:20–27.[8]
The purpose of this allusion is not that Adam committed idolatry or worshiped other creatures as described here because apparently he did not do so in Genesis 3. If God’s image in humanity is to do with the function bestowed upon humankind to be God’s agent in the created world, the connection here is probably that the fall caused humankind’s confusion of their role and of the roles of God’s other creatures and creation; this confusion results in the misuse of the representing function of “image,” and as a result the world is literally out of order. Although God’s image in humanity was not taken away after the fall, Rom 1:18–23 places its proper functioning in question. God’s image in humanity is therefore in need of restoration.
For this restoration, Paul sees Christ as the solution. In 2 Cor 4:4 Paul, for the first time, explicitly mentions that Christ is the image of God. In its immediate context Paul does not provide further explanation about what this statement means, but Christ being the image of God here can be understood that Christ is the precise and visible representative of the invisible God.[9]
Regarding this, a more developed version can be found in the Christ-hymn in Col 1:15–20.[10] This Christ-hymn starts with the statement that Christ is the image of the invisible God and the rest revolves around two themes: he is the firstborn of all creation (1:15) and the firstborn from the dead (1:18), and by way of the double uses of “the firstborn,” this Christ-hymn demonstrates Christ’s supreme role in creation as well as in redemption.[11] As such, Christ is the true representative of God, ruling over all creation and the church.
This Christ-hymn lays a foundation for the teachings in the latter part of the letter. In Col 2:6–10, because in Christ the whole fullness of deity dwells bodily (Col 2:9; cf. 1:19) and also because Christ is the head of every ruler and authority (Col 2:10; cf. 1:16), Christians in Colossae should live their lives rooted and built up in him solely, and not to be taken captive through other philosophies or teachings (Col 2:6–8). Because Christ is the firstborn from the dead (Col 1:18), in Col 2:11–15 the readers are reminded that they were buried with Christ in baptism and raised with him through faith (Col 2:12) so that their trespasses can be forgiven by God through his cross (Col 2:13–14; cf. 1:20). Therefore, the Christians in Colossae are exhorted to hold fast to the head of all (cf. Col 2:19) by rejecting the false and misleading teachings mentioned in Col 2:16–23.
Christ as the true image of God is also used as the basis for concrete moral teachings in Col 3:1–17 (esp. 3:5–17). Because Christ is all and in all (Col 3:11; cf. 1:15b, 18, 19), the readers should clothe themselves “with the new self, which is being renewed in knowledge according to the image of its creator” (Col 3:10). “Its creator” here apparently refers to God and hence “the image of its creator” refers to Christ as the true image of God in Col 1:15. As to the phrase, “being renewed in knowledge according to the image of its creator,” very likely it echoes the “image of God” motif in the creation account of Gen 1:26–27 as well as the “knowledge” motif related to the fall in Gen 2:17; 3:5,7.[12] This is as opposed to the fall of Adam and Even, which was related to their eating of the fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 3:1–19); the renewal now is brought by the true knowledge hidden in Christ (Col 2:3), who is all and in all (Col 3:11). Since Christ is the true image of God (cf. Col 1:15), the renewal can be understood as the restoration of God’s image in humanity, and this restoration should bring a new moral life compatible with the “kingdom of his Beloved Son” (cf. Col 1:13).
In Colossians the restoration of God’s image in humanity through Christ the true image of God has more to do with the readers’ submitting themselves to the sovereignty of Christ, God’s true representative. In 2 Corinthians the restoration is described in a metaphorical way as reflecting the image of the Lord. In 2Cor 3:18 it says, “And all of us, with unveiled faces, seeing the glory of the Lord as though reflected in a mirror, are being transformed into the same image from one degree of glory to another; for this comes from the Lord, the Spirit.” The basic idea here is that when Christians let themselves be exposed continuously to the influence of Christ, eventually they will be turned to be like him, i.e., his mirror image. In Colossians, this influence can be seen as being channeled through the knowledge hidden in Christ, the head of all (Col 2:3–4; 3:11), and hence, exerted by Christ through his lordship.
In addition to the submission to Christ’s lordship, the Pauline epistles also mention other means for Christians’ reflection of the image of Christ, demonstrated by the use of the Christ-hymn of Phil 2:6–11. The hymn points out that Christ, though in the form of God, did not regard equality with God as something to be exploited, but emptied himself, taking the form of a slave, being born in human likeness, being obedient to the point of death on a cross (Phil 2:6–8), and because of this, he was exalted by God, given the name above every name so that every tongue should confess that he is the Lord (Phil 2:9–11). In relation to its immediate context, this Christ-hymn is used to exhort the readers to imitate Christ’s servanthood to serve one another within the Christian community (Phil 2:1–4).[13] Despite the term “image of God” not being used in this Christ-hymn, the use of “human likeness” still likely alludes to the account of humankind’s being created according to the “likeness of God” in Gen 1:26–27 and 5:1. In such a way, the human likeness that Christ took—epitomized by humbleness, servanthood, and obedience—becomes the true image of man for those created in God’s image to follow and imitate. The restoration of God’s image in humanity, therefore, also includes Christians’ imitation of Christ’s servanthood and obedience.
Although the “image of God” is not explicitly mentioned in Romans, with the help of the more obvious allusions and echoes to God’s image in the Pauline epistles discussed above, the motif of “Christ as the epitome of the restored image of God” actually underlies the theological discourses and ethical exhortations in this letter.
Earlier we mentioned that it is possible that Rom 1:23 and its context deal with the impact of the fall on God’s image in humanity. Similar to 2 Cor 4:4, in Rom 3:21–31, though not explicitly using the motif of the image of God, Christ is seen as the solution to the plague of the dysfunction of God’s image in humanity alluded to in Rom 1:18–23, no matter that the solution is provided through “the faith in Jesus Christ” or through “the faithfulness of Jesus Christ.”[14] In Rom 5:12–21 it is likely that the motif of the image of God also underlies the comparison between Adam and Christ. Adam, the first person created in God’s image, failed to perform the function as God’s representative in the created world due to his disobedience, whereas Christ, being the true image of God (cf. Col 1:15), restored the representative function through his obedience (Rom 5:19). In this way, Christ, the true image of God, becomes the model for those created in God’s image. Therefore, Rom 8:29 says that for those who God foreknew, he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son in order that Christ might be the firstborn within a large family. Similar to the Christ-hymn of Col 1:15–20, Christ is also described as the firstborn of all here, and in line with the thinking of 2 Cor 3:18, the followers of this firstborn are to be conformed to and reflect his image, and this conformity should include both the acknowledgement of and submission to Christ’s lordship (cf. Col 1:15–20) as well as the imitation of his obedience and servanthood (cf. Phil 2:1–11).
In the exhortative section of Romans, the notion “to be conformed to the image of Christ” receives further development. In Rom 13:14 readers are urged to “put on the Lord Jesus Christ” (the language here is similar to that of Col 3:10) and this should be seen as continuing the notion of being in conformity with the image of the Son in Rom 8:29. As for the concrete realization of “put on the Lord Jesus Christ,” the injunctions in Rom 14:1–15:13 point in two directions: first, Christians should subject themselves to the lordship of Christ so that they can abstain from mutual judgment (Rom 14:2–13a), and second, they should also imitate the servanthood of Christ so that the “strong,” by putting up with the weak’s failings (Rom 14:13b–15:4), can serve the "weak".[15] These two directions are actually in line with the themes of the two Christ-hymns in Colossians and Philippians: being the true image of God and the firstborn of all, Christ is the Lord for all, to whom all should submit themselves (cf. Col 1:15–20), and by emptying himself to be born in human likeness, Christ provides for all who follow him through the example of obeying God and serving others in humbleness (cf. Phil 2:1–11).
The Restoration of God’s Image: the Answered and the Unanswered
Although the above discussions are by no means comprehensive, they provide a sketch of the use of the motif of God’s image in the Pauline epistles. Rooted in the Jewish tradition, the Pauline epistles confirm the very positive view about humanity: humanity is created in God’s image, while at the same time these epistles view God’s image within humanity to be in a state of dysfunction and in need of restoration.
To this end, the Pauline epistles see Christ as the answer in two ways. On one hand, Christ the true image of God was given to us as God’s true representative to whom all shall be submissive so that for those who acknowledge his supreme authority, the dysfunction caused by Adam’s disobedience can be rectified. On the other hand, for those who follow Christ he set the example of servanthood and obedience so that for those who imitate his example their representative function as God’s image can be truly restored. In these two ways, Christ God’s image in humanity is to be restored.
The solution provided by Pauline epistles focuses on the right relationship between humankind and God with its emphasis on Christ’s lordship, as well as the right relationship between one another in human society with its emphasis on Christ’s servanthood and its implications for societal lives (e.g., Rom 14:1–15:13; Phil 2:1–4). In comparison with the above two right relationships, little attention was paid to the relationship between humankind and the created world. Even for the passages that touch on this, such as Rom 8:18–30, there is no concrete direction given. As a result, what would be the right relationship between humankind and the created world, an important aspect of humankind’s representative function as God’s image, is a question left untouched and hence unanswered here. Although we can reasonably assume that with the right relationships between humankind, God, and among human societies, there is a good basis to answer the question about humankind’s relationship with the created world. The exploration of the answer for this question is still an unfinished task for those who have experienced the restoration of God’s image in them through Christ.
Notes
1 All Bible quotations are from the NRSV.
2 W. Bromiley, “Image of God,” ISBE 2:803–805.
3 Bromiley, ISBE 2:803; Gordon J. Wenham, Genesis 1–15 (WBC 1; Dallas: Word, 1998), 29–30.
4 See Edward M. Curtis, “Image of God (OT),” ABD 3:389.
5 Curtis, ABD 3:390–91. See also Wenham, Genesis 1–15, 30–31. For the use of “image” in ancient Mesopotamia, see J.H. Walton, Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary (Old Testament) Volume 1: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009)20–21.
6 Cf. Anthony C. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians (NIGTC; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000), 833.
7 C.E.B. Cranfield, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (ICC; London: T&T Clark, 1975), 119; James D.G. Dunn, Romans 1–8 (WBC 38A; Dallas: Word, 1988), 60; Joseph A. Fitzmyer, Romans (AB 33; New York: Doubleday, 1993), 283; Douglas J. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans (NICNT; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996), 109–10.
8 See Dunn, Romans, 61–2; Contra Fitzmyer, Romans, 283.
9 See Murray J. Harris, The Second Epistle to the Corinthians (NIGTC; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2005), 329–331. As to a possible Hellenistic Jewish background of this expression, see Victor Paul Furnish, II Corinthians (AB; New York: Doubleday, 1974), 222–223; Margaret Thrall, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians (2 Vols; ICC; London: T&T Clark, 1994), 1:310.
10 The authorship of Colossians is disputed though the author inclines to Pauline authorship. For the support for Pauline authorship, see e.g., Peter T. O’Brien, Colossians, Philemon (WBC 44; Dallas: Word, 1982), xli–xlix, and for the support for non-Pauline authorship, see e.g., James D.G. Dunn, The Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon (NIGTC; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996), 35–39. Whether it is Pauline or post-Pauline, the author shares Thrall’s view that this Christ-hymn is not pre-Pauline. It is either Pauline or composed in one of the Pauline churches. See Thrall, 2 Corinthians, 1:309.
11 An excellent analysis of the Christ-hymn can be seen in John M.G. Barclay, Colossians and Philemon (New Testament Guides; Sheffield: SAP, 1997), 59–63, esp. 60–61.
12 Dunn, Colossians and Philemon, 221–222.
13 Not all agree that there is a link between this Christ-hymn and the exhortation in 2:1–4, but see O’Brien, Colossians, Philemon, 204–5.
14 For those who in favor of “the faith(fulness) of Jesus Christ,” see e.g., Luke Timothy Johnson, Reading Romans (Macon, GA: Smyth & Helwys, 2001), 60; Richard B. Hays, The Faith of Jesus Christ (2nd Ed.; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1983, 2002), 156–61. For the more traditional reading “the faith in Jesus Christ,” see e.g., Dunn, Romans 1–8, 166.
15 See Kuo-Wei Peng, Hate the Evil, Hold Fast to the Good (LNTS 300; London: T&T Clark, 2006), 185.
